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Crowd manipulation is the intentional use of techniques based on the principles of crowd psychology to engage, control, or influence the desires of a crowd in order to direct its behavior toward a specific action.〔Adam Curtis, "The Century of the Self" (documentary), British Broadcasting Cooperation (United Kingdom: BBC4, 2002). (published a webpage for this documentary, which is available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/features/century_of_the_self.shtml ).〕 This practice is common to politics and business and can facilitate the approval or disapproval or indifference to a person, policy, or product. The ethicality of crowd manipulation is commonly questioned. Crowd manipulation differs from propaganda although they may reinforce one another to produce a desired result. If propaganda is "the consistent, enduring effort to create or shape events to influence the relations of the public to an enterprise, idea or group",〔Edward L. Bernays and Mark Crispin Miller, ''Propaganda'' (Brooklyn, NY: Ig Publishing, 2004): 52.〕 crowd manipulation is the relatively brief call to action once the seeds of propaganda (i.e. more specifically "pre-propaganda"〔Jacques Ellul, ''Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes'' (New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965): 15.〕) are sown and the public is organized into a crowd. The propagandist appeals to the masses, even if compartmentalized, whereas the crowd manipulator appeals to a segment of the masses assembled into a crowd in real time. In situations such as a national emergency, however, a crowd manipulator may leverage mass media to address the masses in real time as if speaking to a crowd.〔Gustave Le Bon, ''The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind'', Kindle Edition, Book I, Chapter 1 (Ego Books, 2008).〕 Crowd manipulation also differs from crowd control, which serves a security function. Local authorities use crowd-control methods to contain and disperse crowds and to prevent and respond to unruly and unlawful acts such as rioting and looting.〔John M. Kenny, Clark McPhail, et al, "Crowd Behavior, Crowd Control, and the Use of Non-Lethal Weapons", The Institute for Non-Lethal Defense Technologies, The Pennsylvania State University (2001): 4-11.〕 ==Function and morality== The crowd manipulator engages, controls, or influences crowds without the use of physical force, although his goal may be to instigate the use of force ''by the crowd or by local authorities''. Prior to the American War of Independence, Samuel Adams provided Bostonians with "elaborate costumes, props, and musical instruments to lead protest songs in harborside demonstrations and parades through Boston's streets." If such crowds provoked British authorities to violence, as they did during the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770, Adams would write, produce, and disperse sensationalized accounts of the incidents to stir discontent and create unity among the American colonies. The American way of manipulation may be classified as a tool of soft power, which is "the ability to get what you want through attraction rather than coercion or payments". Harvard professor Joseph Nye coined the term in the 1980s, although he did not create the concept. The techniques used to win the minds of crowds were examined and developed notably by Quintilian in his training book, ''Institutio oratoria'' and by Aristotle in ''Rhetoric''. Known origins of crowd manipulation go as far back as the 5th century BC, where litigants in Syracuse sought to improve their persuasiveness in court.〔Aristotle, ''The Art of Rhetoric'', translated with an introduction by H.C. Lawson-Tencred (New York, NY: Penguin Group, 2004): 1-13.>〕〔Cheryl Glean, ''Rhetoric Retold: Regendering the Tradition from Antiquity through the Reniassance'' (Illinois: SIU Press, 1997): 33, 60.>〕 The verb "manipulate" can convey negativity, but it does not have to do so. According to ''Merriam Webster's Dictionary'', for example, to "manipulate" means "to control or play upon by artful, unfair, or insidious means especially to one's own advantage."〔"manipulate" in ''Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary'' (2010), Retrieved March 24, 2010, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/manipulate.〕 This definition allows, then, for the artful and honest use of control for one's advantage. Moreover, the actions of a crowd need not be criminal in nature. Nineteenth-century social scientist Gustave Le Bon wrote: Edward Bernays, the so-called "Father of Public Relations", believed that public manipulation was not only moral, but a necessity. He argued that "a small, invisible government who understands the mental processes and social patterns of the masses, rules public opinion by consent." This is necessary for the division of labor and to prevent chaos and confusion. "The voice of the people expresses the mind of the people, and that mind is made up for it by the group leaders in whom it believes and by those persons who understand the manipulation of public opinion", wrote Bernays.〔Bernays, 109.〕 He also wrote, "We are governed, our minds are molded, our tastes formed, our ideas suggested, largely by men we have never heard of. This is a logical result of the way in which our democratic society is organized." Others argue that some techniques are not inherently evil, but instead are philosophically neutral vehicles. Lifelong political activist and former Ronald Reagan White House staffer Morton C. Blackwell explained in a speech titled, "People, Parties, and Power": In brief, manipulators with different ideologies can employ successfully the same techniques to achieve ends that may be good or bad. Crowd manipulation techniques offers individuals and groups a philosophically neutral means to maximize the effect of their messages. In order to manipulate a crowd, one should first understand what is meant by a crowd, as well as the principles that govern its behavior. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「crowd manipulation」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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